Impact of the Ageing Workforce

Impact of the Ageing Workforce Prior to the passage of the Social Security Act in 1935 work did not typically end with a planned retirement. Average retirement (meaning the age at which 1/2 of workers from an initial age cohort remain in the workplace) was age 70 or more for men. After World War II there was a need to open the workplace to growing numbers of unemployed younger workers, particularly veterans. Also retirement leisure was becoming a symbol of success. Social security and private pension policies were designed to encourage earlier departures from work. In 1961, for example, Congress lowered the age men were eligible for unreduced Social Security benefits from 65 to 62. Average retirement dropped from age 70 in 1950 to age 65 in 1970 with age 62 becoming the norm by 1985 [Quinn, 2002; Cahill et al., 2005]. Despite this long trend toward earlier retirement since the 1940s, the 78 million baby boomers born between 1946 and 1964 comprise such a large group that there are more workers in their fifties and sixties on the job than ever before. As they leave the workforce, whether at age 55, 62, 65 or later, there will also be more retirees than ever before. To complete the picture, as these baby boomers age at work and then leave for retirement, they are followed by a substantially smaller younger generation, the baby bust of 1965–1976. The enormous economic and labor market consequences of this demographic transformation are becoming clear. In the State of Washington, for example, 29% of employed workers were 45 or older in 1995. This had grown to 39% by 2005 [Kaglic, 2005]. This growth is not being matched by younger workers. By 2015 there will be 115,000 more 60- to 64-year olds and 30,000 fewer 40- to 44-year olds in the Washington State labor force (those who are either employed or seeking employment) than there were in 2005 [Bailey,2006]. As these older workers move into retirement the direct impact will be a tighter labor market and a shortage of various skills. According to the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers by 2010 as many as 60% of today’s experienced utility workers will retire. Similarly, the average age of hospital caregivers today is about 45, with 70% of the hospital workforce eligible to retire over the next 20–25 years [Briley and Hutson, 2002]. The indirect, but equally profound, impact of the demographic changes will be economic. The integrity of our federal social security system has depended upon the labor and income of large numbers of young workers supporting the retirement needs of smaller numbers of disabled and retired workers and their dependents. In 2005 for every person 65 and older there were five people aged 20– 64 (i.e., an old age dependency ratio of 20%). The Social Security Administration e stimates that by 2080 this ratio will more than double, to more than 40%, with only 2.5 younger people for every older one. Not only will the number of retirees grow, but their life expectancy and associated duration of retirement is increasing as well. While private pension systems are theoretically fully funded at the time the commitment is made to provide the future benefit, in fact this is often not fully realized. Underfunded pension programs in both the private and public sectors are now common, the federal assurance program for these pensions is not robust, and these pensions may also be jeopardized by these changing demographics. Although the impact of the growing dependent older population will be somewhat mitigated by lower fertility rates which reduce the numbers of the very young who are also dependent on the working age population [Burtless, 2005], this will not offset the profound economic consequences of the demographic trends. As these trends progress—more old er workers moving toward retirement with fewer younger replacements— substantial pressure on our social security and pension funds will accompany the anticipated shortages of labor and skills. Public and private employment policies will almost certainly evolve to encourage workers to stay on the job longer. Other factors creating incentives to stay at work longer include the need for private health insurance until at least the age of 65 in the face of relentlessly rising health care costs and the increasing uncertainty about pension benefits that comes with the trend from defined benefit private pension plans shift toward defined contribution programs. Some of the expected policy changes are already evident, including the 1978 and 1986 amendments to the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 [ADEA, 1967] which have largely eliminated mandatory retirement ages, the gradual increase in the age for full social security benefits from 65 to 67, and a relaxation of the social security retirement earnings test so that workers can stay on the job longer without a loss of benefits. The Pension Protection Act of 2006 has made it easier for senior employees to phase their retirement plans by starting to draw pension income without penalty while they continue to work full or part time past age 62 [PPA, 2006]. These changes are probably not enough. Business Week magazine, for example, predicts that social security’s normal retirement age will incrementally rise to 70 [Coy and Brady,2005]. This, however, is not certain since along with predictable political opposition many actuaries assume that raising the retirement age would result in an increasing number of older people applying for Social Security disability benefits, thus offsetting the possible savings from the raised retirement age. The impact of these developments is already apparent. While the labor force participation rate among 65-year-old men dropped from 70% in 1940 to only 32% in 1985 [National Research Council, 2004] this trend shows signs of reversing as the incentives for early retirement are beginning to soften. From 1985 to 2004 the labor force participation rate of 25- to 54-year olds stayed essentially stable (à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡uctuating between 82% and 84%) while the rate among 55- to 64-year olds increased consist ently from 54% to 62% [Toossi, 2005]. This trend is likely to continue, as signaled by a May, 2005 Gallup survey showing that the percent of people planning to put off retirement until after age 62 had risen from 35% in 1998 to 55% in 2004. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that the percent of older workers staying on the job will continue to rise at least through 2014, even without major changes in social policy such as further increases in full social security retirement age. The impacts of age on cognitive function are more complicated. Some mental processes such as those requiring spatial abilities, problem solving, and processing of complex stimuli are especially age sensitive. Cross sectional data sets suggest declines in these domains beginning as early as 20–30 years old, while the onset is a bit later for longitudinal studies. Performing multiple simultaneous tasks or holding multiple items in working memory are examples of these age dependent processes. Psy chologists distinguish these ‘‘fluid’’ functions which involve processing input at the time of performance from other ‘‘crystallized’’ cognitive functions which are the cumulative results of earlier processing and are better preserved with age. The ‘‘crystallized’’ knowledge of word meaning or the ability to retrieve familiar information, for example, is relatively age stable. In addition to these crystallized semantic skills, memory for procedural skills such as typing, which relies on early learning, is also relatively well maintained with age [National Research Council, 2004]. The ability to work successfully with increasing age is thus the integrated result of many factors. For example, older typists have been shown to have slower tapping rates and reaction times, but are able to compensate for declining motor speed by using experience to scan characters further in advance than younger, less experience d typists [Salthouse, 1984; Bosman, 1993, 1994]. Similarly, despite significant age-related declines in the cognitive ability to recall short musical melodies, at every age those with musical experience and skills tend to maintain their advantage in musical memory over those with less experience and skill [Meinz and Salthouse, 1998; Meinz, 2000]. Based on a comprehensive review Salthouse [2006] has concluded that while many types of cognitive and physical performance are improved at all ages with training and practice, this does not appear to change the rate at which capability declines with age. In other words training, practice and experience can enhance performance at older ages and can often result in older workers outperforming younger ones, despite the fact that age-related declines continue at the same rate as they do in workers with less experience and practice. Laà ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡amme and Menckel [1995] have summarized these relationships in a study of work injuries by noting that skills and experience can compensate for age-related physical and cognitive declines only when the job demands remain lower than overall work capacity and that this compensation is not feasible when work organization and working methods are rigid. Several recommendations have been made for the implementation of practical programs consistent with the evidence summarized above. Four strategic dimensions have been suggested, including interventions that focus on the work environment, the way work and retirement are arranged and organized, the health and fitness of the individual worker, and the social context of work [Moyers and Coleman, 2004; National Research Council, 2004]. We are beginning to experience profound work place changes related to the demographic changes of an aging population. Those who do encourage older employees to remain at work but fail to take steps to support their productive capacities and minimize their vulnerabilities may experience adverse impacts on qu ality, productivity, workers’ compensation and other insurance costs. On the other hand employers who promote and support the work ability of employees as they age may gain in safety, productivity, competitiveness, and sustainable business practices. There are several possible reasons why employers have been slow to anticipate and meet the needs of an aging workforce. First, some of the actions that that have been suggested— such as phased retirement programs—might require complex changes in pension law, benefits agreements and personnel policies. Second, many employers still harbor false beliefs that older workers are less reliable, less productive, less safe and more expensive than younger ones [Wegman, 1999]. Third, some employers are insuffiently informed about laws governing workplace bias and equal opportunity and are fearful that measures perceived to favor older workers might open them to charges of discrimination. Two recent U.S. Supreme Court decisions should mitigate these fears, but knowledge of them is not widespread [General Dynamics, 2004; Smith, 2005]. In combination these decisions make it clear that while age sometimes does affect an individual’s capacity to do certain types of work, employers may attend to the special needs of older workers without providing equivalent assistance to relatively younger workers. Thus, it is permissible to treat older workers preferentially in comparison to younger workers, but it is not permissible to deny them advantages or privileges extended to younger workers. It is important to note, however, that programs and policies which most effectively meet the needs of an aging workforce are not just programs for older workers but are those starting when workers are young in order to prevent or slow the effects of aging at work. Fourth, while there is strong evidence to support the implementation of some of the interventions discussed in this paper (e.g., ergonomic measures to prevent mu sculoskeletal disorders and clinical preventive services to reduce disability from cancer and cardiovascular disease), the evidentiary is limited and unknown to most employers. Research is needed to determine the effectiveness of the various program designs together with a substantial effort to disseminate results and recommendations to employers and employee organizations References Quinn J. 2002. Changing retirement trends and their impact on elderly entitlement programs. In: Altman SH, Shactman DI, editors. Policies for an aging society. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, p 293-315. Kaglic R. 2005. 2005 Washington State Labor Market and Economic Report. Olympia, Washington: Washington State Employment Security Department. Bailey S. 2006. Data projections from Washington State Office of Financial Management, adjusted by Washington State Employment Security Department. Private correspondence. Briley T, Hutson T. 2002. Who will care for you: Washington hospitals face a personnel crisis: Washington State Hospital Association. Burtless G. 2005. Can rich countries afford to grow old? In An Ageing Society. Research Centre on Financial Economics. Portugal: Lisbon. ADEA. 1967. 29 USC section 621 et seq. 1967 as amended by Public Law 95-256 (1978) and Public Law 99-592 (1986). PPA. 2006. Pension Protection Act of 2006 Public Law 109-280 section 905. Coy P, Brady D. 2005. Old. Smart. Productive. Business Week. National Research Council, Committee on the Health and Safety Needs of Older Workers. 2004. Health and safety needs of older workers. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. Toossi M. 2005. Labor force projections to 2014: Retiring boomers. Mon Labor Rev 128:25–44. Salthouse TA. 1984. Effects of age and skill in typing. J Exp Psychol Gen 113(3):345–371. National Research Council, Committee on the Health and Safety Needs of Older Workers. 2004. Health and safety needs of older workers. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. Meinz EJ, Salthouse TA. 1998. The effects of age and experience on memory for visually presented music. J Gerontol B Psychol Soc Sci 53(1):P60–P69. Salthouse TA. 2006. Mental exercise and mental aging: Evaluating the validity of the ‘‘use it or lose it’’ hypothesis. Perspect Psychol Sci 1(1):68–87. Laà ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡amme L, Menckel E. 1995. Ageing and occupational accidents: A review of the literature of the past three decades. Saf Sci 21(2):145–161. Moyers P, Coleman S. 2004. Adaptation of the older worker to occupational challenges. Work 22:71–78. Wegman DH. 1999. Older workers. Occup Med 14(3):537–557. General Dynamics Land Systems. 2004. Inc. v. Cline 540 U.S. 581. Smith v. 2005. City of Jackson, Mississippi, 544 U.S. 228.

Literary Realism in Editha :: William Dean Howells Papers

Literary Realism in Editha After World War I, American people and the authors among them were disillusioned by the effects that war had on their society. America required a literature that would expound what had happened and what was happening to their society. The realistic movement of the late 19th century saw authors accurately depict life and its problems. This realistic movement evolved because of many changes and transitions in American culture. In the late 1800's, the United States was experiencing swift growth and change because of a changing economy, society, and culture. The increase of immigrants into America was one of the reasons. Realists endeavored to give a comprehensive picture of modern life by presenting the entire picture. The true definition of literary realism as defined by Encyclopedia Britannica is an approach that attempts to describe life without idealization or romantic subjectivity. Although realism is not limited to any one-century or group of writers, it is most often asso ciated with the literary movement in 19th-century France, specifically with the French novelists Flaubert and Balzac. George Eliot introduced realism into England, and William Dean Howells introduced it into the United States. Realism has been chiefly concerned with the commonplaces of everyday life among the middle and lower classes, where character is a product of social factors and environment is the integral element in the dramatic complications. In relation to that, William Dean Howells, while opposing idealization, made his comic criticisms of society. He did this by comparing and contrasting American culture with those of other countries. He did not try to give one view of life but instead attempted to show the different classes, manners, and stratification of life in America. He believed that novels should present life as it is, not as it might be. Howells was a champion of realism in American literature. He has written more than one hundred books. Among them is; The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885), A Modern Instance (1882), A Boy's Town (1890) and My Year in a Log Cabin (1893). Throughout his writings, Howells attempts to make his characters real with faults and fears as are commonly found in reality. Howells utilizes literary realism in his short story Editha to communicate the reality of war and to portray the romanticism Americans had created around the concept of war.

Pragmatism and teachers role Essay

Pragmatism is an American philosophy from the early 20th century. According to Pragmatism, the truth or meaning of an idea or a proposition lies in its observable practical consequences rather than anything metaphysical. It can be summarized by the phrase â€Å"whatever works, is likely true.† Because reality changes, â€Å"whatever works† will also change — thus, truth must also be changeable and no one can claim to possess any final or ultimate truth. C.S. Peirce on Pragmatism: C.S. Peirce, who coined the term Pragmatism, saw it as more a technique to help us find solutions than a philosophy or solution to problems. Peirce used it as a means for developing linguistic and conceptual clarity (and thereby facilitate communication) with intellectual problems. He wrote: â€Å"Consider what effects, which might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then our conception of these effects is the whole of our conception of the object.† William James on Pragmatism: William James is the most famous philosopher of Pragmatism and he’s the one who made Pragmatism itself famous. For James, Pragmatism was about value and morality: the purpose of philosophy was to understand what had value to us and why. James argued that ideas and beliefs have value to us only when they work. James wrote on Pragmatism: â€Å"Ideas become true just so far as they help us to get into satisfactory relations with other parts of our experience.† John Dewey on Pragmatism: In a philosophy he called Instrumentalism, John Dewey attempted to combine both Perice’s and James’ philosophies of Pragmatism. It was thus both about logical concepts as well as ethical analysis. Instrumentalism describes Dewey’s ideas the conditions under which reasoning and inquiry occurs. On the one hand it should be controlled by logical constraints; on the other hand it is directed at producing goods and valued satisfactions. What is the Role of a Teacher According to Pragmatism? According to pragmatism teacher is a friend, guide and philosopher to the child. He must educate the child in social environment so that he may attain social efficiency. There must be positive relationship between teacher and taught. His behavior towards children must be sympathetic. His attitude should be democratic and child must have academic freedom. His function is to suggest problems to his pupils and to stimulate them to find for themselves solutions which will work. His emphasis is not on the knowledge as arranged and systematized in the text-books. He wants the children to do one experiment or to have a particular experience. ‘Doing’ is more important than knowing. Like Socrates the Pragmatist teacher wants â€Å"his pupils to think and act for them, to do rather than to know, to originate rather than to repeat.† Pragmatism and School John Dewey maintains that school is a ‘Miniature Society’ here a child gets real experiences to act and behave according to his interests, aptitudes and capacities. Pragmatists regard school as a social institution where the child gains real experiences of actual life which develop in him social sense and a sense of duty towards society and the nation. Group games, working in laboratories and studying in libraries with others are the various activities and experiences which inculcate in children social qualities, social attitudes together with a spirit of mutual help and cooperative activities. In this way, according to Pragmatism the school is not a centre of education alone but it is also a community centre of various activities and experiences. Contribution of Pragmatism in Education Aims It lays more stress on social and vocational efficiency. Teacher It gives important place to teacher. Student It stresses on child-centered education. Teaching Method New teaching methods are the contribution of pragmatism. Curriculum It lays more stress on experience and learning by doing. Evaluation of Pragmatism Opposition of Pre-determined Ideas Pragmatism opposes pre-determined ideals and values. They are man-made and change according to the changes in circumstances, time and place. Opposition of Eternal Truth Pragmatism does not have any faith in eternal truth. Pragmatists believe that if the result of an activity is satisfactory then it is true otherwise not. No Fix System of Education. Pragmatism provides academic freedom to every institution which leads them nowhere. Pragmatism gives no fixed ideal to education. Such an education is bound to be fruitless. Emphasis on Material and Negation of Spiritual Values There is no room for spiritual values in pragmatism. It gives more Weight age to material values. Without spiritual values, we cannot achieve happiness, contentment and peace of mind and can go astray. Laxity in Discipline Pragmatism allows full freedom to the child who is not proper at the school stage and it leads to serious chaos and confusion. Condemnation of Formal Education Pragmatism advocates that all knowledge should be acquired through direct personal experiences. But knowledge is so vast and the span of life so short, that it is quite impossible to receive all knowledge through direct experiences. Hence acquiring all knowledge needs personal experiences and formal education both. Negation of the Past Pragmatism gives undue importance to the present. It ignores both past and future. The study of past is important to understand the present. Also there is need to link the present with future. Pragmatism is a Method Only. Pragmatism is not a philosophy of life but only a method of education, growth and development. In the words of William James â€Å"There is absolutely nothing new in the pragmatic method. It is just empirical attitude. It has no dogmas and no doctrines save its methods.† Pragmatism believes in Pluralism which is not proper. Merits of Pragmatism Project Method Project method is a gift of pragmatism. Through this method child attains knowledge by solving his practical problems. He performs the problematic acts in natural conditions. This method lays emphasis on learning through experiences. Importance of Child Opposing bookish knowledge and formal education, pragmatism lays great stress upon the development of child’s individuality by his own efforts. This makes education child- centre. Emphasis on Activity The principle of learning by doing is the main contribution of pragmatism. Children are active by nature. It emphasizes on the activity of the child. It prepares the child for future life in a very effective manner. Revolutionized the Process of Education This philosophy has infused life and zest in contribution. The concepts of ‘New Education’, ‘Progressive Education’ and Activity-centre curriculum which have changed the education outlook are the contribution of pragmatism. Social and Democratic Education Pragmatism infuses in a child a spirit of freedom, initiative, equality and also a sense of responsibility in relation to rights and duties of a citizen. This develops in the child love for democratic values and social efficiency which bring harmonious adjustment and development of personality. Progressive Attitude Pragmatism emphasizes the qualities of freedom initiative expression, experiences congenial, environment, purposeful creativity and development of human values for the welfare of whole mankind. In the words of Rusk â€Å"It is merely a stage in the development of a new Idealism that will do full justice to reality, reconcile the practical and spiritual values and result in a culture which is the flower of efficiency.† Pragmatism is an attitude and a way of living which, opposing the old doctrines of Idealism and Naturalism inspires the individual to look ahead and creates new values for an unknown future so that he leads a better, happier and a richer life.

The Loss of a Tribes Livelihood in Chinua Achebes...

Things Fall Apart: The Loss of a Tribes Livelihood In Things Fall Apart we witnessed the destruction of a traditional native culture. More specifically we witnessed the challenge and weakening of Igbo spirituality, as well as the death of the tribes livelihood. The apparent cause can be found in a seemingly good intended mission acting as a gateway for the intrusion of a foreign government, and its quest to conquer and domesticate a self-sustaining, prosperous culture. Although the Igbo downfall was caused primarily by the invasion of Christian missionaries, their own religious doctrine and passivity played a significant role in allowing the initial infiltration of an alien religion, and the final dissolution of a once†¦show more content†¦But although he thought for a long time he found no answer. He was merely led into greater complexities. He remembered his wifes twin children, whom he had thrown away. What crime had they committed? (TFA 87). The timing of this passage falls in between a thorough account of Igbo customs and the conversion of many Igbo people to Christianity. This transition seems to indicate that there is a representative attitude of doubt and discontentment within Umuofia (and later indicated to be similar in Mbanta). Customs such as throwing away twins and human sacrifice were troubling and no justification could be found within their own religious doctrine. The timeliness of Christianity allowed it to spread because it was the only available option to turn to. The villagers needed answers to explain the uncertainties they were feeling and Christianity was the only plausible option. This attitude is again characterized by Nwoye while he is in Mbanta: It was not the mad logic of the Trinity that captivated him. He did not understand it . . . . The hymn about brothers who sat in darkness and fear seemed to answer a vague and persistent question that haunted his young soul - the question of the twins lying in the bush and the question of Ikemefuna who was killed. He felt a relief within as the hymn poured into his parched soul. (TFA 104) The mission also gained respect and power by flourishing in circumstances that were